In the summer of 1795, a Scottish-born American merchant named James Swan did something extraordinary: he personally paid off the entire US debt $2,024,899 owed to France from the Revolutionary War. Let’s set the stage. When the war ended in 1783, America’s total debt reached $75 million, with France being the largest foreign creditor. The…

Dred Scott, a 28 year old precedent overturned.  The timeline: Scott born into slavery → sold to Dr. Emerson (an Army surgeon, not a hunter) Emerson takes Scott to free states/territories (Illinois and Wisconsin Territory) where Scott continues working as a slave without pay, even though slavery was illegal there Emerson leaves for Louisiana…

Revert and a bit of growth. Revert and a bit of growth. But mostly, revert.

To feel heard. To feel misunderstood. To feel heard.

When the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815, think of this as Napoleons insane invading spree, Europe’s great powers were tired. And a way to protect from this debacle again was to make Switzerland permanently neutral. Buffer state: Prevented rival powers from sharing borders (France, Austria, Germany, Italy) Strategic balance: No single power controlled the Alpine…